Universities In Europe

Praxis is a process through which a theory, lesson or skill is ratified to practiced, personified and realized. Praxis might also refer to act of appealing, applying, exercising, realizing or practicing ideas. This has been a popular topic in the field of philosophy as Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Immanuel Kant, Karl Marx, Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt and various others have written about this topic. It is a practical and applied knowledge to one’s actions. It has meaning in political, educational and spiritual realms. Aspiring teachers take Praxis I and II to show potential employers that they have credentials required to be teachers. According to Praxis Prep Info article “Praxis Test Review”, around 44 states requires that students working on a teacher certification take Praxis I. Praxis II is another test offered by Educational Testing Service (ETS) to help licensing board to determine whether to grant a teacher certification. Achieving a satisfactory score on praxis test is required step for a potential teacher to get a teacher certification or teacher licensure.

Reading about Test

Since career of teachers depend on their performance on Praxis exams, they should dedicate themselves to doing research about what Praxis expects from them. According to ETS article “General Information and Study Tips” you can improve your score on Praxis by studying notes and books on specific subject. ETS supplies potential test takers with tests from previous years called Test at a Glance booklets. The test at a Glance booklets are updated yearly for test takers to stay current on what Praxis will ask of them. You can also purchase content specific study guide from ETS website.

Making a Timeline

Self evaluation will help you to be realistic about what subject areas you should improve in before taking test. You should understand scoring criteria before taking test and you should research about which test licensing board wants you to take. Research will keep you away from wasting your time taking wrong test or performing poorly on test. You should ask yourself what you know about Praxis and proceed from here. Creating a timeline might help you to figure out which areas to focus on in weeks before exam. Familiarize yourself with types of questions is an important part of your timeline. Provide plenty of study time to you to prepare to do best as you can do.

Organize Your Time

You can develop an organizational chat that helps you to divide up your time evenly. The Praxis I has three sections and all need to be approached with care. You should focus your attention on each section because you need excellent scores across board. Having excellent scores in one area doesn’t make up for doing poorly on another area. Decide on an amount of time to study each day perhaps for half an hour to three hours. Divide up your daily study time for each section of Praxis. You should give yourself more time to work on your weakest areas to perform well on all three sections.

Undergraduates fulfill broad education requirements and choose among wide variety of elective courses. They pursue departmental attentiveness and interdisciplinary certificate program. Required independent work serves as hallmark of undergraduate education at Princeton. Students graduate either with Bachelor of Arts (A.B) or Bachelor of Science in engineering (B.S.E). The Graduate School offers advanced degrees straddling humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. Doctoral education is available in all disciplines. It emphasized on original and independent scholarship whereas master’s degree programs in architecture, engineering, finance and public affairs and public policy prepare candidates for careers in public life and professional practice.

Undergraduate

Undergraduate courses in humanities are traditionally either seminars or lectures held 2 or 3 times a week with an additional discussion seminar is called a “precept” (short for “preceptorial”). For graduation all A.B candidates should complete a senior thesis and in several departments one or two extensive pieces of independent research that are known as “Junior Papers”. Juniors in some departments counting architecture and creative arts complete independent projects that vary from written research papers. A.B candidates need to fulfill a three or four semester foreign language requirement and distribution requirements with a total of 31 classes. B.S.E candidates follow a parallel track with an emphasis on a rigorous science and math curriculums, a computer science requirement and at least two semesters of independent research including an optional senior thesis.

All B.S.E students should complete at least 36 classes. A.B candidates typically have more freedom in course selection than B.S.E candidates because of fewer numbers of required classes. However, in the spirit of a liberal arts education, both enjoy a comparatively high degree of latitude in creating a self structured curriculum. Undergraduates agree to stick to an academic veracity policy called Honor Code which was established in 1893. Violation of Honor Code invites suspension or expulsion, the strongest of disciplinary actions. Out of class exercises are outside the Honor Committee’s jurisdiction. In these cases, students are expected to sign a pledge on their papers to affirm that they have not plagiarized their work.

Graduate

The Trustees of Princeton University comprises a 40 member board. This board is responsible for overall directions of University. It approves operating and capital budgets, supervises investment of University’s bequest and oversees campus real estate and long range physical planning. The trustee also exercise prior review and approval concerning changes in major policies like those in instructional programs and admissions as well as tuition, fees and hiring of faculty members. Princeton University offers postgraduate research degrees in various fields like social sciences, engineering, natural sciences and humanities. However, Princeton offers professional graduate degrees in engineering, architecture and finances; it has no medical school, law school or business school like other research universities. The most famous professional school of university is Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs. It was found in 1930 as School of Public and International Affairs and renamed in 1948 after university president and US President Woodrow Wilson.

Admissions and Financial Aid

Princeton is one of the most selective colleges in Unites States admitting only 8% of undergraduate applicants in 2010. In September 2006, the university announced that all applicants for class 2012 would be considered in a single pool. This way effectively end Early Decision program. The office of Financial Aid estimates that Princeton seniors on aid will graduate with an average indebtedness of $2,360, compared to national average of about $20,000. Princeton was the first university who eliminate loans for all students who qualify for aid.

Princeton University is a private research university situated in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of Ivy League and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges found before American Revolution. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate education in humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. Princeton typically doesn’t offer professional schooling but it does offer professional master’s degree mostly in the course of Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs and doctoral programs. This university was found in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey as College of New Jersey. In 1747, university moved to Newark then to Princeton in 1756, and was renamed as Princeton University in 1896. Princeton was fourth institution of higher education in US to conduct classes.

The university, contrasting most American universities that were found at the same time didn’t have an official religious affiliation. At one time it had close ties to Presbyterian Church but today it is nonsectarian and makes no spiritual demands of its students. The university has ties with Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary and Westminster Choir College of Rider University.

Campus

The main campus is situated within the boundaries of three municipalities, Borough of Princeton, Princeton Township and West Windsor Township. The James Forrestal Campus is in close proximity Plainsboro Township. The campuses are located about one hour from both New York City and Philadelphia. The oldest building campus is Nassau Hall built in 1754 and situated on northern edge of campus facing Nassau Street. The building was formerly designed by Robert Smith and subsequently remodeled by notable American architects Benjamin Latrobe and John Notman. Stanhope Hall “Once a library, now home of University’s Centre for African-American Studies” and East and West College both dormitories followed.

Major buildings in late 19^th Century were built in brownish stone in a Victorian Gothic style influenced by Richardsonian Romanesque, many designed by William Appleton Potter, including Chancellor Green Library and Alexander Hall. Beginning at very end of 19^th century, the University adopted a steady Collegiate Gothic style, executed in gray stone. This standard continued up to World War II and included most buildings in northern third of campus except 19^th century core. The renowned Philadelphia firm Cope & Stewardson designed Blair Hall in Collegiate Gothic style. Mckim, Mead & White designed FitzRandolph Gateway in front of Nassau Hall. The early 20^th century also saw first master plan for campus, executed by university’s first master architect, Ralph Adams Cram, who designed several buildings on campus.

Modern buildings dominate southern and eastern ends of campus. Fine Hall, the Math Department’s home was designed by Warner, Burns, Toan and Lunde, completed in 1970. It is the tallest building on campus at fourteen stories. Lake Carnegie can be found at southern edge of campus. It is a manmade lake donated by steel magnate Andrew Carnegie and used for crew (rowing). It forms boundary between Princeton Township and West Windsor Township. Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park are away from lake. From 2006-2008, Princeton University reported on campus crime statistics that include 44 forcible sex offenses, 1 non forcible sex offense, 11 aggravated assaults, 152 burglaries, 9 cases of arson and 14 cases of motor vehicle theft.

There are fourteen higher education institutions in Scotland which have university status out of a total of such institution within United Kingdom. There are also further five independent higher education institutions which don’t have university status. The oldest university in Scotland is University of St Andrews, established in 1413 with the universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen. These “ancient universities” were established by papal bulls but in 16^th century royal charter became standard method of foundation. University of Edinburgh was established first which became Scotland’s fourth university at a time when Scotland’s more crowded neighbor England had only two. The number of universities doubled during 1960s with three existing colleges gaining university status and the University of Stirling being established as Scotland’s only “plate glass university”.

Various former polytechnics or central institutions followed in 1990s after Further and Higher Education Act 1192. The newest Queen Margaret University attained university status in 2007. Beside campus based universities, the distance learning Open University plays an important role in Scottish university sector. It is teaching 40% of Scotland’s part-time undergraduates.

Universities in Scotland

The University of Dublin (Ollscoil Atha Cliath in Irish), corporately nominated the Chancellor, Doctors and Masters of University of Dublin (since the 19^th century). It is located in Dublin Ireland. It was found 1592 when “Queen Elizabeth I” issued a charter for Trinity College Dublin, as “The mother of university”. This date makes it Ireland’s oldest operating university. Contrasting from universities of Oxford and Cambridge, after which University of Dublin was modeled and both of which comprise several constituent colleges, there is just one Dublin College named as Trinity College. Hence the designations “Trinity College Dublin” and “University of Dublin” as usual are synonymous for practical purposes. The University of Dublin is a member of Irish University Association and Coimbra Group, a network of leading European universities.

The university is governed by University Senate, chaired by Chancellor or a Pro-Chancellor in their place. The Senate was constituted by Letters Patent of 1857 as a body corporate under name, style and title of “The Chancellor, Doctors and Masters of University of Dublin”, empowered by statements like “The Chancellor, Doctors, and Masters of the University of Dublin”, empowered by statements such as “It shall be and shall continue to be a body corporate with a common seal, and shall have power under the said seal to do all such acts as may be lawful for it to do in conformity with the laws and statutes of the State and with the Charters and Statutes of the College. It shall consist of the Chancellor, the Pro-Chancellors, and such Doctors and Masters of the University as shall be members of the Senate in accordance with such regulations and conditions as the Board shall enact.”

The “Board in above case yet is governing authority of Trinity College, so it would seem the University has also some degree of subsidiarity to the Board of College but this is countered by role of visitors below. Each meeting of Senate is leaded by a “Caput” consist of Chancellor, the Provost of Trinity College or Vice-Provost in their place and Senior Master Non-Regent. The University of Dublin is today in very centre of Dublin, as city has moved eastwards. Its campus contains various buildings of architectural merit, especially from 18^th and 19^th centuries. These include Chapel and Examination Hall designed by Sir William Chambers and Museum Building designed by Irish architecture Thomas Newenham Deane and Benjamin Woodward.

Degrees

Graduate of liberal degrees like non-professional like as Humanities or Science, receive an honours Bachelor of Arts degree after four years, but some students receive an ordinary B.A after three years study. Bachelors of at least three years standing might proceed to the degree of Master of Arts.

From 1975 onwards, University of Dublin degrees were also awarded to graduates at the colleges of Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT). This practice continued until 1998 when DIT gained ability to award degrees in its own right.